What are reports? Explain different types of reports with examples.

Report is a logical presentation of facts and information. It is the result of the researches, analysis, and investigations, which is present in a written form. It is the basic tool on which decisions can be based.

The information present in the report is needed to evaluate progress and plan future action. Reports provide feed back to an organization to guide future course of action.

According to C.A.Brown, “A report is a communication form of some one who has some information to some one who needs that information.“

The goal of making reports is to make the information as clear and convenient and accessible as possible.
Reports vary widely in their purpose. They also differ with the type of audience they are written for.

Types of reports:

# Based on the formality:-

1) INFORMAL REPORT :-
This is usually in the form of a person to person communication. It does not follow any format and informally conveys the required information.

2) FORMAL REPORT:-
This is prepared in a prescribed form and is presented in the proper way to the prescribed authority. They can be a statutory.

# Based on the frequency of issue:-

3) PERIODIC or ROUTINE REPORTS:-
These are presented at routine intervals in the normal course of business. The time period could be annually, semi-annually, monthly, fat nightly, weekly, or even daily.
Generally, these reports are mere statement of facts. They do not go with a recommendation or opinion. For e.g. Progress report, monthly sales report, etc…


4) SPECIAL REPORTS:-
They are related and generated for a single occasion or situation. They deal with non-recurrent issues. An individual or a committee is appointed to investigate the situation and present its findings.
They give suggestions to the management to take decisions. For e.g. project report, feasibility study report, First information report [F.I.R] etc…

# On the basis of FUNCTION

5) INFORMATIVE REPORT:-
This presents facts and information related to an issue or situation. For eg: a report presenting sales figures for a quarter.

6) INTERPRETIVE REPORT:-
This analyses the facts , draws conclusions and recommendations to solve the problem. For ex: if the report delves into the causes of low sales during a particular period, it becomes an interpretive or analytical report.

# On the basis of NATURE OF THE SUBJECT

Problem determining report
Fact finding report
Performance report
Technical report

Few reports in detail:

v F.I.R or First Information Report:-
This is required when there is a burglary, accident, theft, fire, building collapse, etc… the report has to give all the information, which is available immediately after the incident occurs, i.e.

What happened?
When did it happen?
Who noticed it?
What steps were taken immediately after it?
Who were all present on the scene? Etc…

A responsible person, who is present on the spot of the incident, prepares it. It is submitted to any office authority for information and further action. For e.g. regional office, police station, etc… the F.I.R also states the extent of damage on casual estimation.

v PROGRESS REPORT:-
This gives information about the progress of a student, an employee, or a project. This report can be prepared as comments, or filled in a standard format. Abridge construction, a road laying project, an employee training programme, a student progress throughout a year, etc.. can be presented in a progress report.

v INSPECTION REPORT:-
This should be prepared after an inspection is complete. The supervisor, auditor, or any other expert in the field can prepare this report. Inspection reports become necessary when you have to find out the following:-
§ The quality of goods, plant and machinery.
§ The quality of work done.
§ Deviations from preset standards.
§ The presence of required people
§ The accuracy of financials.
§ The inventory status.
§ Adherence to rules and procedures.
§ Timings are being followed.

Printed forms can be used to record the comments or the inspectors can use their own techniques of report writing. Inspection reports can be prepared on a routine basis or after a surprise check.

v Performance appraisal report:
This is usually prepared for recording the performance of our employee and deciding his compensation, special incentives, promotion etc. The immediate boss usually does it. A second appraiser may also be present, if needed, to avoid partiality. Performance appraisals may also be present, if needed, to can be confidential or in consultation with the employee concerned. This depends on the organizational policies. After reading the performance appraisal report, an employee can get feedback about his performance in the managers of the organization, who wish to know about the employee.

v Project report:
A project report is written when a project has been completed and all the details have to be put in a written format. The project can be a live one or simulated. A project report helps in comparing the work done by different people. It may or may not follow a prescribed format. However, all project reports will contain some essential parts. It can be used to decide future course of action and may also list out the problems that are being faced in the project. It can be used for sanctioning finance, and as a planning tool. It is also used for convincing other relevant authorities.

v Annual report:
This is written as a requirement of companies Act, 1951. It details all the financial operations of a company during its financial year. It is normally written and printed once a year and is circulated to all members (owners) of a company. This is so that they are all aware of the happenings of their company.

The contents of an annual report are:

· The company profile.
· Notice of the AGM.
· Director’s report.
· Auditor’s report.
· Balance sheet.
· Schedules forming part of the balance sheet
· Profit and loss statement
· Notes to the Accounts
· Cash flow statement
· Accounts of subsidiary company, if any.


v FEASIBILITY REPORT:-

It can be prepared in the following situations,

Ø When an organization/individual proposes to launch a product.
Ø Before entering a market.
Ø To start a new service.
Ø To open a new shop.
Ø Before venturing into a market segment.
Ø Before buying a new expensive machine.
Ø Before constructing a building or house.
Ø Before planning expansion of man or machine requirements.
Ø To evaluate the financial viability of a proposal.

A feasibility report can help on making Go/No go decision. It is invaluable for decision makers when they have a major project in their hand. People, who grant loans and funds for new projects, normally decide whether or not to go ahead, on the basis of the feasibility report. They normally cover all types of feasibilities. For ex: location feasibility, financial feasibility, marketing feasibility, technical feasibility, etc…

v SURVEY REPORT:
This is written after a survey. It could be a
· Market survey
· Institutional survey
· Customer survey
· Product survey
· Location survey
· Competitor survey
· Student survey
· Executive survey etc…

A survey can be done for many reasons. The reasons may be academic or business, a specific person can commission the survey for a specific reason or an organization could sponsor it for expansion of databases. A survey report can help you to update existing statistics. A survey is normally carried out with the help of a questionnaire.

v PRESS REPORT:
Press reports are scripts for publications in news papers or other periodicals. They are read by millions of people, from all walks of life and of all age groups. press reports are scientific messages, published to convey different opinions to the reading public. The topics can range from

· Political issues
· Health
· Economics
· Foreign affairs
· Education
· Entertainment
· Social issues
· Current affairs
· Administrative matters
· Religious matters etc…

They cover the development under different government regimes, the speeches of important proceedings and people, the programs of an election manifesto, changes in financial, stock and commodity markets and thousands of other events that take place in the complex world



Report writing instructions:
A report is the formal writing up of a practical experiment, project or research investigation.
A report has clearly defined sections presented in a standard format, which are used to tell the reader what is done, why and how it is done and what is found.
Reports are written in a way which presumes that the reader knows nothing about the experiment or research.
Reports are written in sufficient detail so that someone reading it would be able to replicate the experiment exactly.
Reports differ from essays because they require an objective writing style which conveys information clearly and concisely.
Business reports:
A business report conveys information to assist in decision making.

Some important things to be done before writing:

choose the writing goal
What is this report intended to do?
Make this goal neither too general, nor too wide.
study the audience;
obtain information
start gathering statistics, survey results, or any other data that can be helpful in the research;
Manage the information - rearrange and sort it when the plan of presentation is determined.
Carefully analyze the gathered information;
write down possible solutions to a problem

Structuring the Report
Most reports include the following sections:

Title
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Appendices
1. Title
This should be short and precise. It should tell the reader of the nature of the research.
E.g. The effects of stress on eye-witness testimony
Omit any unnecessary detail e.g. ‘A study of….’ is not necessary.
.2. Abstract
The Abstract is a self-contained summary of the whole of the report. It should therefore be written last and is usually limited to one paragraph (approximately 150 words). It should contain:
An outline of what is investigated (as stated in the title)
Why it is chosen to look at that particular area with brief reference to prior research done in the field
The experimental hypothesis (prediction of what the results will show)
A brief summary of the method
The main findings and how these relate to the hypothesis
A conclusion which may include a suggestion for further research.
3. Introduction
The Introduction ‘sets the scene’ for the report; it does this in two ways:
· By introducing the reader in more detail to the subject area which is looked at, through presenting the objectives and hypotheses.
· Initially a writer should explain the background to the problem with reference to previous work conducted in the area (i.e. a literature review).
· Briefly discuss the findings of other researchers and how these connect with the study.
· Finally, state the aims or hypothesis.
4. Method
The Method section should describe every step of how it is carried out in the research in sufficient detail so that the reader could exactly replicate the procedure if they wanted to. Information on the experimental design, sampling methods, participants (if there were any), equipment and the overall procedure employed should be clearly specified.
This information is usually presented under the following sub-headings:
Participants (if there were any) - say how many participants or items were included. Why and how were they selected? What were their defining characteristics?
Design – Say what the experimental method was (e.g. laboratory or field experiment, questionnaire survey etc) and why this method is chosen. What was the design i.e. how many different conditions did the experiment have (e.g. for Psychology students was it an independent or matched groups design?)? The type of data gathered and how it is collected it.
Apparatus/Materials –a full description is given, do not use a list. In some subjects, particularly Science disciplines, this section is only required if any special equipment is used.
Procedure – A step by step description of what is done from start to finish.
5. Results
The Results section should clearly convey the findings of the experiment. These are which will base the commentary on in the Discussion section, so the reader needs to be certain of what is found.
Present data in a summarized form (e.g. means and standard deviations).
Raw data (e.g. individual recordings taken during the experiment) should be included in the Appendices.
Describe what the results were, don’t offer interpretations of them.
Present them in a logical order.
Those that link most directly to the hypothesis should be given first.

Presenting Data in Tables and Graphs
Do not present the same data in two or more ways i.e. use either a table or a graph, or just text.
Remember that a graph should be understandable independently of any text, but can be accompanied each with a description if necessary.
Use clear and concise titles for each figure. Say which variables the graph or table compares.
Describe what the graph or table shows, then check that this really is what it shows! If it isn’t, it needs to amend the figure, or the description.

Statistical Analysis
If any statistical analysis of the results is conducted:
· Say which test is used (e.g. chi-square, t-test) and briefly explain why it is chosen for that particular statistical test.
· Show how the results were analyzed, laying out the calculations clearly (ensure to include the level of probability or significance p or P, and the number of observations made n).
· Clearly state the results of the analysis saying whether the result was statistically significant or not both as numbers and in words.
6. Discussion
The Discussion section is probably the most important part of the report. It relates the findings of the study to the research that is talked about in the Introduction, thereby placing the work in the wider context. The Discussion helps the reader to understand the relevance of the research to previous and further work in the field. This is the chance to discuss, analyze and interpret the results in relation to all the information that has been collected.
The Discussion will probably be the longest section of the report and should contain the following:
· A summary of the main results of the study
· An interpretation of these results in relation to the aims, predictions or hypothesis, e.g. is the hypothesis supported or rejected? And in relation to the findings of other research in the area, specifically those studies that is included in the Introduction.
· Consideration of the broader implications of the findings. What do they suggest for future research in the area? If the results contradict previous findings what does this suggest about the work or the work of others? What should be studied next?
· A discussion of any limitations or problems with the research method or experimental design and practical suggestions of how these might be avoided if the study was conducted again.
· Some carefully considered ideas for further research in the area that would help clarify or take forward the findings.
· A conclusion which briefly summarizes the main issues arising from the report.
7. References
Here writer must give details of work by all other authors which he has referred to in the report.
8. Appendices
The Appendices contain material that is relevant to the report but that would disrupt its flow if it was contained within the main body. For example: raw data and calculations; interview questions; a glossary of terms, or other information that the reader may find useful to refer to. All appendices should be clearly labeled and referred to where appropriate in the main text.